Athletic Performance Articles

Key Definitions: 

• Early sports specialization- can be defined as specialize and train systematically in one sport. 
• Early sampling- can be defined as different playful experiences in several sports. 

Early sports specialization is something that is spoken about quite a lot in today’s athletic circles by coaches, medical professionals, and parents.

There have been many studies done in this area, however I believe that due to the way a lot of this research has been conducted, it is hard to find a concrete answer for questions like: 

• Does early sport specialization give an athlete a better chance at being successful in the sport or increase their potential to play D1 or professionally? 
• Is early sport specialization healthy, both physically and mentally for an athlete? 

Because of the current methods used in the research on this topic it is hard to give confident answers. Some research shows that both early sport specialization and early sport sampling can be beneficial to later sports performance levels. 

Research shows that early sports specialization can increase injury risk and burn out in athletes. However, for highly technical sports (ex. gymnastics) an athlete joining the sport later in their athletic journey could increase their injury risk due to trying to “catch up” to their peers that have been in the sport longer (excessive training hours and reps). This is not to say that if an athlete has chosen a sport they love and they want to focus on it, they shouldn’t. Provided that the athlete is choosing for themselves and they still have the ability to sample sports at a recreational level, having one sport that they love can be beneficial to their level of competition if they are not overloaded (ex. baseball practice and games for summer, fall, and spring ball, batting practice, extra throwing practice, etc.). 

Early sports specialization and injury rates: Possibly increases injury risk 

Early sports specialization and performance: Possibly helps later performance levels depending on sport

Early Sport sampling and injury rates: Probably decreases injury risk. 

Early Sport sampling and performance: Possibly helps later performance levels depending on sport

A few articles to check out:

• Sugimoto, Dai, et al. "Youth Sport Specialization: Current Concepts and Clinical Guides." HSS Journal® (2024): 15563316241237526.
• Charbonnet, Bryan, and Achim Conzelmann. "Talent development in childhood: Early specialization or sampling? From an either… or… question to a 2× 2× 3 question cuboid." International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 19.1 (2024): 459-475.
• Kliethermes, Stephanie A., et al. "Impact of youth sports specialisation on career and task-specific athletic performance: a systematic review following the American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (AMSSM) Collaborative Research Network’s 2019 Youth Early Sport Specialisation Summit." British Journal of Sports Medicine 54.4 (2020): 221-230.
• McLellan, Maddison, Sachin Allahabadi, and Nirav K. Pandya. "Youth sports specialization and its effect on professional, elite, and olympic athlete performance, career longevity, and injury rates: a systematic review." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 10.11 (2022): 23259671221129594.
• Carder, Seth L., et al. "The concept of sport sampling versus sport specialization: preventing youth athlete injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis." The American Journal of Sports Medicine 48.11 (2020): 2850-2857.

When it comes to recovery methods, Cold Water Immersion (CWI) and Whole Body Cryotherapy (WBC) have gained popularity among athletes. But do they really help? Let’s break it down:

Key Definitions

• Recovery: The process where an athlete’s body returns to its normal physiological state after exercise.
• Performance Recovery: The process where an athlete regains or enhances their ability to perform well, even if their body hasn’t fully returned to its baseline state.
• Perceived Recovery: An athlete’s personal feeling of how well they’ve recovered after exercise.

Does CWI or WBC help with recovery?

Probably Hinders. There’s little evidence to support the idea that CWI or WBC significantly improves recovery, at least as we’ve defined it here. The body’s return to its normal state doesn’t seem to be dramatically faster with these methods. Probably hindering long-term strength or muscle growth.

Does CWI or WBC help with performance recovery?

Possibly Helps, but the benefits are short-term. You might experience performance improvements for 24-48 hours after using CWI, but be cautious. While it can help with short-term performance recovery, it might also increase fatigue or reduce the body’s ability to adapt positively to training over time. This is particularly important if your goal is long-term strength or muscle growth.

Does CWI or WBC help with perceived recovery?

Probably Helps. Many athletes report feeling better and more recovered after using CWI or WBC, even if the actual physiological benefits are limited. This boost in perceived recovery could help with mental readiness for the next game or session.

Effects of CWI or WBC on adaptations in strength, hypertrophy, or endurance?

• Strength and hypertrophy: Probably Hinders. Research shows that using CWI or WBC after strength training might interfere with muscle growth and strength development over time.
• Endurance: Doesn’t Hinder. CWI or WBC doesn’t seem to help or hurt endurance adaptations, so its impact here is minimal.

When should athletes use CWI or WBC?

The best time to use CWI or WBC is when you need peak performance over consecutive days, such as during tournaments or intense training blocks. It may also help during periods of intense training when recovery time is short. But if you’re focusing on long-term strength or muscle gains, use these recovery methods sparingly.

A few research articles to check out

Ihsan, M., Markworth, J. F., & Peake, J. M. (2021). Adaptations to post-exercise cold water immersion: Friend, foe, or futile? Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3, Article 714148. 

Fyfe, J. J., Broatch, J. R., Trewin, A. J., Hanson, E. D., Argus, C. K., Garnham, A. P., Halson, S. L., Polman, R. C., Bishop, D. J., & Petersen, A. C. (2019). Cold water immersion attenuates anabolic signaling and skeletal muscle fiber hypertrophy, but not strength gain, following whole-body resistance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 127(5), 1403-1418.

Grgic, J. (2022). Effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion on resistance training-induced gains in muscular strength: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Sport Science, 22(1), 1-20.

Mandorino, M., & Lacome, M. (2022). Analysis of recovery methods’ efficacy applied up to 72 hours postmatch in professional football: A systematic review with graded recommendations. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 17(9), 1241-1251. 

Brownstein, C.G., Fornasiero, A., Haile, L., Heisz, J., & Power, K.E. (2021). The neurophysiological mechanisms of fatigue during low-intensity, prolonged exercise: Insights from peripheral and central measures of neuromuscular function. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 121(8), 2337–2347. 

Dupuy, O., Douzi, W., Theurot, D., Bosquet, L., & Dugué, B. (2020). An evidence-based approach for choosing post-exercise recovery techniques to reduce markers of muscle damage, soreness, fatigue, and inflammation: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 50(8), 1511–1542.

Even mild dehydration (a loss of 2% of body weight) can impair cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and reaction time, impair muscular performance, and lead to increased levels of muscle damage after exercise.

When the body is dehydrated, the heart has to work harder to pump blood throughout the body, which can cause fatigue and reduce overall performance. Additionally, dehydration can lead to cramping, as the muscles are not receiving enough fluids and electrolytes to function properly.

When an athlete becomes dehydrated, their body is less able to regulate its internal temperature, which can lead to overheating and other heat-related illnesses.

Dehydration can also affect muscle protein synthesis, which is essential for building and repairing muscle tissue.

Resources

• Casa DJ et al. "National Athletic Trainers' Association Position Statement: Fluid Replacement for Athletes." Journal of Athletic Training. 2000;35(2):212-224.
•  Cheuvront SN et al. "Physiologic basis for understanding quantitative dehydration assessment." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2013;97(3):455-462.
•  National Athletic Trainers' Association. "Fluid Replacement for Athletes." https://www.nata.org/sites/default/files/fluid-replacement-for-athletes.pdf
• American College of Sports Medicine. "Exercise and Fluid Replacement." https://www.acsm.org/docs/default-source/files-for-resource-library/exercise-and-fluid-replacement.pdf?sfvrsn=612d1d8e_2 
• Armstrong LE. (2012). "Assessing hydration status: the elusive gold standard." Journal of the American College of Nutrition; 31(2): 103-112.
• Cheuvront SN et al. (2010). "Hydration assessment of athletes." Sports Medicine; 40(1): 23-41.
• Ganio MS et al. (2011). "Mild dehydration impairs cognitive performance and mood of men." British Journal of Nutrition; 106(10): 1535-1543.
• Sawka MN et al. (2007). "American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement." Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise; 39(2): 377-390.
• Casa DJ et al. Exertional heat illness during training and competition. J Athl Train. 2015;50(3):986-997.
• Judelson DA et al. Effect of hydration state on resistance exercise-induced endocrine markers of anabolism, catabolism, and metabolism. J Appl Physiol. 2008;105(3):816-824.
• Shirreffs SM. Markers of hydration status. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57 Suppl 2:S6-S9.
• Armstrong LE et al. Mild dehydration affects mood in healthy young women. J Nutr. 2012;142(2):382-388.
• Sawka MN et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand: exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(2):377-390.

1. Maximize Power Output: VBT can be used to determine an athlete's optimal load for power output by adjusting the load to ensure the velocity prescribed is being obtained.

2. Improve Rate of Force Development: VBT can also be used to improve an athlete's rate of force development (RFD), which is important for explosive movements such as sprinting and jumping.

3. Enhance Strength: VBT can also be used to enhance an athlete's strength. A study published in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research found that using VBT resulted in greater improvements in 1RM strength compared to traditional methods of load prescription.

4. Prevent Overtraining / Injury : VBT can also be used to prevent overtraining by monitoring an athlete's velocity loss, a decrease in bar speed over time during a set. 

5. Individualize Training: Finally, VBT can be used to individualize an athlete's training program by determining their unique velocity profile, which is the relationship between bar speed and load.

6. Tracking progress: VBT provides real-time feedback on an athlete's performance, allowing coaches to track progress over time and make adjustments as needed as well as motivate athletes. 

Resources

•  Mann, J. B., Ivey, P. A., Sayers, S. P., & Brechue, W. F. (2015). Velocity-based training in football. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,29(11), 3443-3451.
• Suchomel, T. J., Nimphius, S., & Stone, M. H. (2016). The importance of muscular strength: Training considerations. Sports Medicine, 46(10), 1419-1449.
• Weakley, J. J., Till, K., Read, D. B., & Roe, G. A. (2017). The effects of traditional and daily undulating periodized resistance training programs on muscle strength and power in trained older men. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(11), 3119-3130.
• Banyard, H. G., Nosaka, K., Haff, G. G., & Tsunoda, K. (2017). Validity of various methods for determining velocity, force, and power in the back squat. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 12(9), 1170-1176.
•  Gonzalez-Badillo, J.J., Rodriguez-Rosell, D., Sanchez-Medina L., et al. (2014). Short-term recovery following resistance exercise leading or not to failure in women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(11), 3005-3013.

Why youth strength training?

o  Better performance

o  Prevent Injuries

o  Better movement patterns

o  Increase strength

o  Stronger bones

This is by no means a complete list of the benefits of strength training for youth athletes.  It does give you a good idea of some of the major reasons athletes of all ages should be strength training. 

Resources

• https://www.nsca.com/Education/Articles/Why-Youth-Strength-and-Conditioning-Matters/
• M. Peitz, M. Behringer, U. Granacher. “A systematic review on the effects of resistance and plyometric training on physical fitness in youth- What do comparative studies tell us?” PLoS ONE. 10 October 2018. 
• A.D. Faigenbaum. “STRENGTH TRAINING FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS.” Clinics in Sports Medicine, volume 19 Issue 4. 1 October 2000, 593-619.
• J.M. Vaughn, L. Micheli. “Strength Training Recommendations for the Young Athlete.” Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, volume 19, Issue 2. May 2008, 235-245.
• H. Chaabene, M. Lesinski, D.G. Behm, U. Granache. “Performance- and health-related benefits of youth resistance training.” Sports Orthopaedics and Traumatology, 36. 8 May 2020, 231 – 240.