ATHLETIC PERFORMANCE ARTICLES

Athletes, parents, and coaches often focus on how to maximize performance through training, but understanding what happens when training stops is just as important. Detraining—the loss of performance adaptations due to reduced or ceased training—can significantly impact an athlete’s progress, making it crucial to approach training and recovery strategically.

How Quickly Does Detraining Begin?

• Cardiovascular fitness can begin to decline within 2 to 4 weeks of detraining. Athletes with a higher level of training experience slower losses and can regain adaptations faster when they resume training.
• Power output is one of the first neuromuscular adaptations to decline, typically within 4 weeks of reduced training.
• Strength losses also begin around 4 weeks, but tend to occur more gradually than power and endurance declines.
• Body composition changes, such as increased fat mass and slight reductions in muscle mass, can occur with extended detraining periods.

Detraining Does Not Erase All Progress, But It Adds Up Over Time

While short-term breaks may not cause an immediate return to baseline, longer periods of detraining can lead to significant losses. Training adaptations do not disappear overnight, but the longer an athlete remains inactive, the harder it becomes to regain lost performance.

This means that working hard for several months only to take extended time off can create a frustrating cycle of gains followed by losses, rather than steady progress.

How to Minimize the Effects of Detraining

Even during off-seasons or periods of reduced training, maintaining some level of activity is key:

• Endurance athletes should include low-volume cardiovascular training to preserve aerobic capacity.
• Power and strength-based athletes should continue strength and explosive training, even at a reduced intensity, to limit neuromuscular declines.
• Team sport athletes should aim to retain a mix of conditioning, strength, and sport-specific work to avoid excessive performance drops.

Consistency Over Perfection

Athletes don’t have to train at peak intensity year-round, but completely stopping training for extended periods is not an effective strategy. Instead, periods of lower training volume should still include key elements to prevent unnecessary setbacks. The most successful athletes understand that maintaining consistency in training, even in the off-season, is what leads to long-term progress and peak performance when it matters most.

By being smart about training loads and maintaining strategic levels of activity, athletes can continue to build on their hard work rather than losing progress and starting over every season.

A few articles to check out:

• Gavanda, Simon, et al. "Three weeks of detraining does not decrease muscle thickness, strength or sport performance in adolescent athletes." International Journal of Exercise Science 13.6 (2020): 633.
• Izquierdo, Mikel, et al. "Detraining and tapering effects on hormonal responses and strength performance." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 21.3 (2007): 768-775.
• Petek, Bradley J., et al. "Cardiac effects of detraining in athletes: a narrative review." Annals of physical and rehabilitation medicine 65.4 (2022): 101581.
• Zheng, Jie, et al. "Effects of Short‐and Long‐Term Detraining on Maximal Oxygen Uptake in Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta‐Analysis." BioMed research international 2022.1 (2022): 2130993.
• Chaouachi, Anis, et al. "Global training effects of trained and untrained muscles with youth can be maintained during 4 weeks of detraining." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 33.10 (2019): 2788-2800.
• Koundourakis, Nikolaos E., et al. "Discrepancy between exercise performance, body composition, and sex steroid response after a six-week detraining period in professional soccer players." PloS one 9.2 (2014): e87803.

Key Concepts:

• VBT: Uses exercise velocity to adjust load, volume, and intensity in real-time.
• PBT: Uses fixed percentages of an athlete’s 1RM for load prescription.

Strengths of VBT:

• Auto-regulation: Adjusts load based on daily performance fluctuations. (Helps with fatigue management and training optimization since athletes' capabilities can fluctuate daily due to various factors.)
• Objective Feedback: Provides real-time feedback on velocity.
• Greater Improvements in Power: More effective for improving power and explosiveness.
• Testing: VBT tools assess velocity at various loads, track power output and performance changes over time, and measure velocity profiles and peak velocities across exercises (e.g., squat, bench press, jump squat), allowing strength and power evaluation without frequent 1RM testing.

Strengths of PBT:

• Standardized Load: Fixed intensities for consistency across cycles.
• Greater Max Strength Improvements: Especially effective for developing max strength in strength-oriented phases.

Limitations:

• VBT:
  • Device Dependency: Requires accurate velocity measuring tools.
  • Complexity: Can take time to learn how to implement and may require additional training for athletes.
• PBT:
  • Inflexibility: Doesn’t account for daily changes in fatigue and recovery.
  • Lack of Auto-regulation: No real-time feedback for adjusting loads.
  • Time-Consuming: Frequent 1RM testing can be tiring and impractical.

Practical Applications:

• VBT:
  • Ideal for managing fatigue and optimizing dynamic performance.
  • Great for sports requiring power, explosiveness, and agility.
  • Allows for daily load adjustments based on velocity feedback.
• PBT:
  • Best for max strength development.
  • Requires no specialized equipment (simpler to implement).

Conclusion:

• VBT: Best for managing fatigue, dynamic performance, and real-time auto-regulation.
• PBT: Ideal for consistent max strength development with clear and standardized guidelines.

A few articles to check out:

• Banyard, Harry G., et al. "Superior changes in jump, sprint, and change-of-direction performance but not maximal strength following 6 weeks of velocity-based training compared with 1-repetition-maximum percentage-based training." International journal of sports physiology and performance 16.2 (2020): 232-242.
• Orange, Samuel T., et al. "Effects of in-season velocity-versus percentage-based training in academy rugby league players." International journal of sports physiology and performance 15.4 (2019): 554-561.
• Shattock, Kevin, and Jason C. Tee. "Autoregulation in resistance training: a comparison of subjective versus objective methods." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 36.3 (2022): 641-648.
• Orange, Samuel T., et al. "Comparison of the effects of velocity-based vs. traditional resistance training methods on adaptations in strength, power, and sprint speed: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and quality of evidence appraisal." Journal of Sports Sciences 40.11 (2022): 1220-1234.
• Thompson, Steve W., et al. "“Is it a slow day or a go day?”: The perceptions and applications of velocity-based training within elite strength and conditioning." International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 18.4 (2023): 1217-1228.
• Pareja-Blanco, Fernando, Simon Walker, and Keijo Häkkinen. "Validity of using velocity to estimate intensity in resistance exercises in men and women." International Journal of Sports Medicine 41.14 (2020): 1047-1055.
• Dorrell, Harry F., Mark F. Smith, and Thomas I. Gee. "Comparison of velocity-based and traditional percentage-based loading methods on maximal strength and power adaptations." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 34.1 (2020): 46-53.
• Loturco, Irineu, et al. "One-repetition-maximum measures or maximum bar-power output: Which is more related to sport performance?." International journal of sports physiology and performance 14.1 (2019): 33-37.
• González-Badillo, Juan J., and L. Sánchez-Medina. "Movement velocity as a measure of loading intensity in resistance training." International journal of sports medicine 31.05 (2010): 347-352.
• Banyard, Harry G., et al. "Comparison of velocity-based and traditional 1RM-percent-based prescription on acute kinetic and kinematic variables." International journal of sports physiology and performance (2018).
• Guppy, Stuart N., Kristina L. Kendall, and G. Gregory Haff. "Velocity-Based Training—A Critical Review." Strength & Conditioning Journal 46.3 (2024): 295-307.
• Weakley, Jonathon, et al. "Velocity-based training: From theory to application." Strength & Conditioning Journal 43.2 (2021): 31-49.

1. Increased Flexibility & Range of Motion (ROM)

• Provides short-term improvements in joint mobility.
• Pre-exercise foam rolling enhances flexibility without reducing force output, unlike static stretching.
• Long-term benefits require consistent use for over four weeks, but results vary by muscle group.

2. Improved Sprint Performance

• Before training: Small but notable improvements in sprint speed (+0.7%) and flexibility (+4.0%).
• After training: Helps restore sprint performance (+3.1%) and strength output (+3.9%) following fatigue.

3. Reduced Muscle Soreness & Perceived Pain

• Post-workout foam rolling can help reduce muscle soreness.
• May enhance psychological readiness and reduce discomfort in subsequent training sessions.

When Should Foam Rolling Be Used?

1. Pre-Workout (Warm-Up)

• Enhances flexibility and sprint performance
• Does not negatively impact strength or power output
• May help reduce pain perception before training

2. Post-Workout

• Helps reduce muscle soreness
• Slightly aids in maintaining sprint and strength performance post-fatigue
• May support psychological recovery

3. Long-Term Use (Mobility Training)

• Requires 4+ weeks for lasting ROM improvements
• Effects depend on muscle group (e.g., hamstrings and quads improve, but ankle dorsiflexion may not)

How Does Foam Rolling Work?

While the exact mechanisms are not fully understood, research suggests several possible effects:

1. Neural & Psychological Factors

• Increases pain tolerance by influencing the nervous system’s perception of discomfort.
• May enhance comfort and movement efficiency after training.

2. Muscular Adaptations

• Likely reduces passive muscle stiffness, leading to short-term ROM improvements.
• Does not appear to cause structural changes (e.g., alterations in muscle tissue).

3. Circulatory & Temperature Effects

• Increases blood flow and tissue temperature, contributing to temporary ROM improvements.
• Similar effects can be achieved with other warm-up methods, meaning foam rolling is not necessarily superior.

Practical Takeaways for Athletes & Coaches

• Use foam rolling before training for flexibility and sprint performance, but not for strength gains.
• Incorporate post-workout rolling for soreness reduction, but it does not accelerate actual muscle recovery.
• For long-term mobility gains, use foam rolling consistently for at least 4 weeks, focusing on specific muscle groups.
• Combine foam rolling with dynamic warm-ups for optimal performance benefits.
• The psychological benefits (reduced soreness, pain perception) may justify its use, even if physiological effects are limited.

A few articles to check out:

• Hendricks, Sharief, et al. "Effects of foam rolling on performance and recovery: A systematic review of the literature to guide practitioners on the use of foam rolling." Journal of bodywork and movement therapies 24.2 (2020): 151-174.
• Wiewelhove, Thimo, et al. "A meta-analysis of the effects of foam rolling on performance and recovery." Frontiers in physiology 10 (2019): 449926.
• Konrad, Andreas, et al. "Foam rolling training effects on range of motion: a systematic review and meta-analysis." Sports Medicine 52.10 (2022): 2523-2535.
• Warneke, Konstantin, et al. "Foam rolling and stretching do not provide superior acute flexibility and stiffness improvements compared to any other warm-up intervention: A systematic review with meta-analysis." Journal of Sport and Health Science (2024).
• Grieve, Rob, et al. "The effects of foam rolling on ankle dorsiflexion range of motion in healthy adults: A systematic literature review." Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies 30 (2022): 53-59.

Adaptations Required to Improve Vertical Jump Height

To increase vertical jump height, athletes must develop strength, power, coordination, and movement efficiency.

1. Neural Adaptations

• Increased Rate of Force Development (RFD): Enhances the ability to generate force rapidly.
• Improved Motor Unit Recruitment: Greater simultaneous activation of motor units leads to higher force production.
• Enhanced Neuromuscular Coordination: Optimized synchronization of the hip, knee, and ankle joints improves movement efficiency and jump mechanics.

2. Muscle Fiber Adaptations

• Fast-Twitch Muscle Fiber Activation: Type II fibers, responsible for explosive power, increase in size and efficiency.
• Muscle Hypertrophy in Key Groups: Growth in the glutes, quadriceps, hamstrings, and calves.

3. Elastic Properties of Muscles and Tendons

• Improved Stretch-Shortening Cycle (SSC): Enhanced ability of muscles and tendons to store and release elastic energy, increasing jump efficiency.
• Tendon Stiffness and Elasticity: Adaptations in the Achilles and patellar tendons improve energy storage and release, leading to more explosive jumps.

4. Skeletal and Joint Adaptations

• Increased Joint Stability and Bone Density: Strength and power training reinforce joint integrity, allowing athletes to handle high-impact forces.

5. Energy System Optimization

• ATP-PC System Efficiency: The ATP-PC energy system, responsible for short bursts of power, becomes more efficient, supporting maximal jump efforts.

6. Movement Efficiency and Biomechanics

• Optimized Jump Mechanics: Improved hip extension, knee drive, and ankle plantarflexion contribute to maximum jump height.
• Core Stability: A strong core enhances force transfer from the lower to the upper body, improving overall jump performance.

Training Methods to Enhance Vertical Jump Performance

Athletes can implement specialized training methods to stimulate these adaptations and maximize their vertical jump height:

1. Resistance Training

• Builds overall strength in key muscle groups, improving force production.

2. Olympic Weightlifting (OW)

• Develops explosive power and rate of force development, directly benefiting jump performance.

3. Plyometric Training (PT)

• Enhances the stretch-shortening cycle, improving reactive strength and jump efficiency.

4. Assisted Jump Training (AJT)

• Trains higher movement speeds by reducing body weight resistance, reinforcing rapid muscle contractions for improved jump performance.

By combining these training strategies, athletes can systematically improve their vertical jump, making them more explosive and powerful in sport-specific movements.

A few articles to check out:

• Perez-Gomez, Jorge, and J. A. Calbet. "Training methods to improve vertical jump performance." J Sports Med Phys Fitness 53.4 (2013): 339-357.
• Hackett, Daniel, et al. "Olympic weightlifting training improves vertical jump height in sportspeople: a systematic review with meta-analysis." British journal of sports medicine 50.14 (2016): 865-872.
• Gallego-Izquierdo, Tomás, et al. "Effects of a gluteal muscles specific exercise program on the vertical jump." International journal of environmental research and public health 17.15 (2020): 5383.
• de Villarreal, Eduardo Saéz-Saez, et al. "Determining variables of plyometric training for improving vertical jump height performance: a meta-analysis." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 23.2 (2009): 495-506.
• Sheppard, Jeremy M., et al. "The effect of assisted jumping on vertical jump height in high-performance volleyball players." Journal of science and medicine in sport 14.1 (2011): 85-89.

Improving sprinting speed requires structural, physiological, and neural adaptations that enhance force production, coordination, and efficiency. Research highlights that sprint speed is influenced by force application, stride length, stride frequency, and power production. Strength and conditioning coaches can optimize sprint performance by focusing on mechanical effectiveness, resistance training, and post-activation potentiation (PAP) strategies.

Key Determinants of Sprint Speed

1. Muscular Development and Power

• Increased Muscle Strength: Stronger muscles, particularly in the glutes, hamstrings, quadriceps, and calves, generate greater force with each stride.
• Improved Muscle Power: Enhances the stretch-shortening cycle, enabling muscles to store and release energy efficiently.

2. Neural Adaptations

• Enhanced Motor Unit Recruitment: Activating more motor units simultaneously increases force production.
• Faster Neural Firing Rates: Improved brain-muscle communication leads to quicker, synchronized movements, reducing reaction time and improving stride frequency.
• Coordination and Technique: Neural pathways adapt to optimize movement patterns for efficient energy transfer.

3. Increased Fast-Twitch Muscle Fiber Activation

• Fast-Twitch Fiber Hypertrophy: Training emphasizes the growth and activation of explosive muscle fibers.
• Shift in Fiber Composition: Intermediate fibers adapt to behave more like fast-twitch fibers.

4. Improved Tendon Stiffness and Elasticity

• Tendon Stiffness: Stiffer tendons store and release more elastic energy during ground contact, improving stride efficiency.
• Elastic Energy Utilization: Enhanced elasticity in tendons and connective tissues contributes to a spring-like effect.

5. Enhanced Joint Mobility and Stability

• Hip and Ankle Mobility: Greater range of motion allows for longer, more powerful strides.
• Joint Stability: Strengthened stabilizers reduce energy leaks and prevent injuries.

6. Improved Rate of Force Development (RFD)

• Faster RFD means more explosive starts and quicker accelerations.

7. Energy System Efficiency

• ATP-PC Energy System: Training increases phosphocreatine stores and improves energy regeneration for high-intensity efforts.
• Anaerobic Capacity: Enhances the body’s ability to tolerate and recover from lactic acid buildup.

8. Reduced Ground Contact Time

• Minimizing time spent on the ground requires a combination of strength, tendon stiffness, and neuromuscular efficiency.

9. Psychological Adaptations

• Increased Confidence: Visualization and mental rehearsal enhance focus and technique.
• Focus on Technique: Precision ensures effective form under high-intensity conditions.

Effective Training Methods for Speed Development

1. Sprint-Specific Training

• Free sprinting with a focus on technique.
• Resisted sprinting (≤10% body weight) to reinforce horizontal force application.

2. Strength & Power Training

• Weight Training (WT): Improves lower-limb strength and contributes to stride length adaptations.
• Plyometric Training (PT) & Resisted Sprint Training (RST): Enhance reactive strength and stretch-shortening cycle efficiency, supporting acceleration.
• Horizontal Power Development (FST): Critical for improving propulsive force during sprinting.
   

3. Sprint Profiling & Individualized Programming

• Assess an athlete’s horizontal force-velocity (F-v) characteristics to identify weaknesses in force production.
• Tailor training interventions to address specific mechanical imbalances.
• Reassess performance regularly to track adaptations and refine training.

Conclusion

A multi-faceted approach combining sprint-specific drills, strength and power training, and force application optimization is essential for maximizing speed. Coaches should individualize training plans using sprint profiling and biomechanical assessments, ensuring that each athlete improves both acceleration and top-end speed.

A few articles to check out:

• Schache, Anthony G., et al. "Lower-limb muscular strategies for increasing running speed." journal of orthopaedic & sports physical therapy 44.10 (2014): 813-824.
• Cook, Christian J., C. Martyn Beaven, and Liam P. Kilduff. "Three weeks of eccentric training combined with overspeed exercises enhances power and running speed performance gains in trained athletes." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 27.5 (2013): 1280-1286.
• Matusiński, Aleksander, et al. "Acute effects of resisted and assisted locomotor activation on sprint performance." Biology of sport 39.4 (2022): 1049-1054.
• Healy, Robin, and Thomas M. Comyns. "The application of postactivation potentiation methods to improve sprint speed." Strength & Conditioning Journal 39.1 (2017): 1-9.
• Rumpf, Michael C., et al. "Effect of different sprint training methods on sprint performance over various distances: a brief review." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 30.6 (2016): 1767-1785.
• de Villarreal, Eduardo Sáez, Bernardo Requena, and John B. Cronin. "The effects of plyometric training on sprint performance: a meta-analysis." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 26.2 (2012): 575-584.
• Lockie, Robert G., et al. "The effects of different speed training protocols on sprint acceleration kinematics and muscle strength and power in field sport athletes." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 26.6 (2012): 1539-1550.
• Leyva, Whitney D., Megan A. Wong, and Lee E. Brown. "Resisted and assisted training for sprint speed: A brief review." Journal Physical Fitness, Medicine and Treatment in Sports 1.1 (2017): 555554.
• Haugen, Thomas, et al. "The training and development of elite sprint performance: an integration of scientific and best practice literature." Sports medicine-open 5 (2019): 1-16.
• Behrens, Matthew J., and Shawn R. Simonson. "A comparison of the various methods used to enhance sprint speed." Strength & Conditioning Journal 33.2 (2011): 64-71.
• Hicks, Dylan Shaun, et al. "Improving mechanical effectiveness during sprint acceleration: practical recommendations and guidelines." Strength & Conditioning Journal 42.2 (2020): 45-62.

1. Will Resistance Training Stunt My Child’s Growth?
   Research has shown that resistance training does not negatively affect height or weight growth in children and adolescents.
    
2. Is Resistance Training Safe for My Child?
   When resistance training is supervised by qualified professionals, with proper techniques and appropriate progressions, it is a safe activity. In fact, well-designed resistance training programs can reduce the risk of sports-related injuries by improving strength and coordination.
    

The Benefits of Youth Resistance Training

1. Improved Muscular Strength and Power
   Resistance training is one of the most effective ways to build muscular strength and power in children and adolescents. Research shows that training 2-3 times per week leads to significant improvements in strength, which can positively impact everyday activities and sports performance.
    
2. Enhances Motor Skills
   Resistance training improves coordination and motor skills in youth, contributing to better control over body movements. This can enhance performance in sports and activities, while also building confidence in physical abilities.
    
3. Psychological Well-Being
   Regular participation in resistance training has been shown to positively affect a child’s psychological health. It can boost self-esteem, reduce anxiety, and provide a sense of accomplishment.
    
4. Injury Prevention
   Strengthening muscles, tendons, and ligaments through resistance training can make youth less prone to injuries. A properly designed program can improve balance, flexibility, and joint stability.
    
5. Long-Term Health Benefits
   Resistance training can contribute to lifelong health by fostering a habit of regular physical activity. Additionally, it can help reduce the risk of obesity and other health issues by increasing muscle mass and improving metabolic health.
    
6. Boosts Physical Literacy
   Resistance training helps build physical literacy, which refers to the ability to move confidently and competently in various physical activities. This foundation makes it easier for children to engage in sports, recreational activities, and a physically active lifestyle later in life.
    

What to Remember When Starting Resistance Training for Your Child

• Supervision is Essential: Ensure that resistance training programs are led by qualified professionals who understand the developmental needs of youth.
• Age-Appropriate: Training should be tailored to your child’s age, maturation stage, and physical abilities. Focus on form and technique first, and gradually increase intensity.
• Consistency: Regular participation (2–3 times per week) is key to seeing improvements, but strength gains can be lost during detraining periods.
• Progress Gradually: Resistance training programs should follow logical progressions, starting with basic movements and building up to more complex exercises.

Resistance training is not only safe and beneficial for children and adolescents but is also a powerful tool for improving overall health, fitness, and performance. By addressing concerns about safety, growth, and injury risk, parents can feel confident in encouraging their children to engage in well-supervised, age-appropriate resistance training programs.

A few articles to check out:

• Behm, David G., et al. "Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology position paper: resistance training in children and adolescents." Applied physiology, nutrition, and metabolism 33.3 (2008): 547-561.
• Behringer, Michael, et al. "Effects of resistance training in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis." Pediatrics 126.5 (2010): e1199-e1210.
• Lesinski, Melanie, et al. "Effects of resistance training on physical fitness in healthy children and adolescents: an umbrella review." Sports Medicine 50 (2020): 1901-1928.
• Ratel, Sébastien. "High-intensity and resistance training and elite young athletes." The elite young athlete 56 (2011): 84-96.
• Faigenbaum, Avery D., and Gregory D. Myer. "Resistance training among young athletes: safety, efficacy and injury prevention effects." British journal of sports medicine 44.1 (2010): 56-63.
• Stricker, Paul R., et al. "Resistance training for children and adolescents." Pediatrics 145.6 (2020).
• Malina, Robert M. "Weight training in youth-growth, maturation, and safety: an evidence-based review." Clinical journal of sport medicine 16.6 (2006): 478-487.
• Lloyd, Rhodri S., et al. "UKSCA position statement: Youth resistance training." Prof Strength Cond 26 (2012): 26-39.

Definition

Osgood–Schlatter Disease (OSD) is a self-limiting overuse injury that causes inflammation at the tibial tuberosity, where the patellar tendon attaches to the tibia. It is commonly seen in adolescents during periods of rapid growth, particularly in those engaged in high-impact or repetitive sports. OSD occurs in young, active individuals with open growth plates (physes), and it is characterized by pain, swelling, and tenderness in the anterior knee.

Causes

• Overuse and Repetitive Strain: OSD results from repetitive stress and traction on the patellar tendon at its attachment site on the tibial tuberosity. This stress is particularly common in sports that involve running, jumping, and sudden changes of direction.
• Rapid Growth: The condition is more common during growth spurts, especially in adolescents with open physes (growth plates), when the tibial tuberosity is still developing and can be more susceptible to injury.
• Increased Activity: Athletes involved in sports such as basketball, soccer, and volleyball are at higher risk due to the repetitive explosive movements that stress the knee.

Prevention Strategies

Stretching:

• Regular quadriceps and hamstring stretching helps reduce tension on the patellar tendon and tibial tuberosity, potentially preventing overuse injuries.

Balanced Training:

• Athletes should engage in balanced training programs, which include cross-training to reduce the repetitive strain on the knee from specific activities.

Regular Assessments:

• Healthcare providers and trainers should regularly assess adolescents involved in high-impact sports (e.g., basketball, volleyball, soccer) for signs of overuse injuries like OSD to ensure early intervention.

Core Stability and Flexibility:

• Core stability exercises can reduce the peak torque in knee flexion during running, improving knee function and reducing the risk of OSD. Improving flexibility in the hamstrings, gastrocnemius, and iliotibial band also plays a role in prevention.

Management

• Conservative Management:
  • Conservative treatments are effective in most cases and focus on managing symptoms while the body naturally heals.
  • The main goals are to reduce inflammation, alleviate pain, and prevent further injury while maintaining functionality.

Treatment Options

Conservative Treatments:

• Rest and Activity Modification: Avoid activities that cause pain (running, jumping, changing directions). Replace them with lower-impact activities like swimming or cycling.
• Cold Therapy: Apply ice to reduce swelling and inflammation in the affected area. (This can help manage pain but does not aid in healing)
• Knee Orthoses: Use knee braces or straps to reduce tractional load on the patellar tendon, providing pain relief.
• Stretching and Strengthening: Stretching the quadriceps, hamstrings, and other muscles to reduce tension, combined with progressive knee-strengthening exercises.
• Core Stability Exercises: Improve core stability, as reduced core strength can contribute to increased knee stress during physical activity.

Leukocyte-Rich Platelet-Rich Plasma (LR-PRP):

• LR-PRP injections have been explored as a treatment for OSD, particularly for athletes. It offers a fast, one-time treatment option with relatively quick and lasting effects compared to more traditional, longer rehabilitation methods.

Surgical Treatment:

• Reserved for cases with persistent pain after the growth plates have closed (physeal closure).
• Surgical options include:
  • Drilling of the tibial tubercle.
  • Removal of loose fragments.
  • Tibial tuberosity excision.
  • Sequestrectomy.
• Surgical intervention is typically a last resort after conservative treatments have failed.

Key Points

• OSD is a common condition in adolescents, especially those who participate in sports that involve jumping and running.
• Conservative treatments like stretching, rest, and physical therapy are usually effective, with surgery only considered for persistent cases after growth plate closure.
• Regular assessments and preventive strategies such as proper stretching, balanced training, and flexibility exercises can reduce the risk of developing OSD in young athletes.

A few articles to check out:

• Circi, E., Y. Atalay, and T. Beyzadeoglu. "Treatment of Osgood–Schlatter disease: review of the literature." Musculoskeletal surgery 101 (2017): 195-200.
• Guldhammer, Clara, et al. "Long-term prognosis and impact of Osgood-Schlatter disease 4 years after diagnosis: a retrospective study." Orthopaedic journal of sports medicine 7.10 (2019): 2325967119878136.
• Rathleff, Michael S., et al. "Activity modification and knee strengthening for Osgood-Schlatter disease: A prospective cohort study." Orthopaedic journal of sports medicine 8.4 (2020): 2325967120911106.
• Zhang, Xueying, et al. "Quantitative Analysis of Quadriceps Forces in Adolescent Females during Running with Infrapatellar Straps." Journal of Sports Science & Medicine 23.4 (2024): 787.
• Ladenhauf, Hannah N., Gerd Seitlinger, and Daniel W. Green. "Osgood–Schlatter disease: a 2020 update of a common knee condition in children." Current Opinion in Pediatrics 32.1 (2020): 107-112.

Eccentric training has demonstrated varying degrees of effectiveness in improving power, strength, and hypertrophy. Additionally, it plays a role in reducing the severity and frequency of injuries in sports. Integrating eccentric-focused methods into training programs can provide significant benefits for athletes across different performance and injury-prevention goals.

ECC muscle actions involve actively lengthening a muscle against external resistance. Below are different types of ECC training, their methods, and potential benefits:

1. Tempo Eccentric Training

• Method: Adjust the speed (time under tension) of the muscle lengthening (ECC) and muscle shortening (Concentric/CON) phases of an exercise. For example, tempos like 2/0/2 or 4/0/2 indicate seconds for ECC, isometric (ISO), and CON phases respectively.
• Purpose: Increase muscle activation and time under tension to enhance hypertrophy and strength.
• Effectiveness: Research shows mixed results—some studies highlight improvements in hypertrophy and strength, while most show no significant benefit.
• Potential Improvements:
  • Hypertrophy: Low–Moderate
  • Strength: Low
  • Power: Low

2. Flywheel Inertial Training

• Method: Uses a flywheel system where CON muscle action unwinds a strap, and ECC action rewinds it, creating resistance.
• Purpose: Enhance muscle activation and control during both phases.
• Potential Improvements:
  • Hypertrophy: Moderate
  • Strength: Low–Moderate
  • Power: Low–Moderate

3. Accentuated Eccentric Loading (AEL)

• Method: Employs heavier ECC loads compared to CON loads in exercises like squats or bench presses. For example, weight releasers add extra resistance during the lowering phase.
• Purpose: Maximize strength and hypertrophy by overloading the ECC phase without disrupting movement mechanics.
• Potential Improvements:
  • Hypertrophy: Moderate
  • Strength: High
  • Power: Moderate–High

4. Plyometric Training

• Method: Incorporates rapid, explosive movements using the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC). Variations include:
  • Miometric: Quick CON action without prior movement.
  • ISO–Miometric: Quick CON action after an isometric hold.
  • Plyometric–Miometric: Quick CON action following a countermovement.
  • Shock: Quick CON action after an involuntary falling impact.
• Purpose: Develop power and speed through fast muscle activation and SSC use.
• Potential Improvements:
  • Hypertrophy: Low
  • Strength: Low–Moderate
  • Power: High

A few articles to check out:

• Bright, Thomas E., et al. "Building for the future: a systematic review of the effects of eccentric resistance training on measures of physical performance in youth athletes." Sports medicine 53.6 (2023): 1219-1254.
• Farthing, Jonathan P., and Philip D. Chilibeck. "The effects of eccentric and concentric training at different velocities on muscle hypertrophy." European journal of applied physiology 89 (2003): 578-586.
• Pakosz, Paweł, et al. "Comparison of concentric and eccentric resistance training in terms of changes in the muscle contractile properties." Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology 73 (2023): 102824.
• Vogt, Michael, and Hans H. Hoppeler. "Eccentric exercise: mechanisms and effects when used as training regime or training adjunct." Journal of applied Physiology (2014).
• Al Attar, Wesam Saleh A., et al. "Effect of injury prevention programs that include the Nordic hamstring exercise on hamstring injury rates in soccer players: a systematic review and meta-analysis." Sports Medicine 47 (2017): 907-916.
• de Hoyo, Moisés, et al. "Effects of a 10-week in-season eccentric-overload training program on muscle-injury prevention and performance in junior elite soccer players." International journal of sports physiology and performance 10.1 (2015): 46-52.
• Friedmann-Bette, Birgit, et al. "Effects of strength training with eccentric overload on muscle adaptation in male athletes." European journal of applied physiology 108 (2010): 821-836.
• Suchomel, Timothy J., et al. "Implementing eccentric resistance training—Part 1: A brief review of existing methods." Journal of Functional Morphology and Kinesiology 4.2 (2019): 38.

Endurance Training (ET)

• Benefits: Builds cardiovascular fitness, stamina, and aerobic capacity over time.
• Downsides: Time-intensive, less specific to game demands.
• Example: 30-60 minutes of steady-state running or cycling at moderate intensity.
• Best For: Preseason or off-season to develop a strong aerobic base.

Small-Sided Games (SSG)

• Benefits: Combines fitness, skills, and game-specific movements; improves decision-making under fatigue; reduces injury risk.
• Downsides: Harder to standardize intensity and monitor individual workloads.
• Example: 3v3, 5v5 drills focusing on game scenarios.
• Best For: In-season or late preseason to enhance fitness while refining skills and tactics.

Sprint Interval Training (SIT, RST, HIT)

• Benefits: Time-efficient, improves aerobic and anaerobic fitness, boosts speed, power, and endurance.
• Downsides: Demanding on the body; requires careful recovery to avoid fatigue or injury.
• Example: High-Intensity training (<45s work 2-4 min rest) Sprint intervals (30s sprint, 30s rest) or repeated sprints (6-10 x 20-30m with full recovery).
• Best For: Preseason or in-season to rapidly improve fitness with minimal time commitment.

With the growing emphasis on maximizing athlete performance and training efficiency, coaches must make informed decisions about how athletes allocate their training time. Current research suggests that improving endurance is most effectively achieved through small-sided games or sprint interval training, as these methods provide both physiological benefits and sport-specific adaptations.

A few articles to check out:

• Gamble, Paul. "A skill-based conditioning games approach to metabolic conditioning for elite rugby football players." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 18.3 (2004): 491-497.
• Kelly, David T., et al. "Comparison of sprint interval and endurance training in team sport athletes." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 32.11 (2018): 3051-3058.
• Gabbett, Tim J. "Skill-based conditioning games as an alternative to traditional conditioning for rugby league players." The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research 20.2 (2006): 306-315.
• Taylor, Jonathan, et al. "The effects of repeated-sprint training on field-based fitness measures: a meta-analysis of controlled and non-controlled trials." Sports Medicine 45 (2015): 881-891.

Key Definitions: 

• Early sports specialization- can be defined as specialize and train systematically in one sport. 
• Early sampling- can be defined as different playful experiences in several sports. 

Early sports specialization is something that is spoken about quite a lot in today’s athletic circles by coaches, medical professionals, and parents.

There have been many studies done in this area, however I believe that due to the way a lot of this research has been conducted, it is hard to find a concrete answer for questions like: 

• Does early sport specialization give an athlete a better chance at being successful in the sport or increase their potential to play D1 or professionally? 
• Is early sport specialization healthy, both physically and mentally for an athlete? 

Because of the current methods used in the research on this topic it is hard to give confident answers. Some research shows that both early sport specialization and early sport sampling can be beneficial to later sports performance levels. 

Research shows that early sports specialization can increase injury risk and burn out in athletes. However, for highly technical sports (ex. gymnastics) an athlete joining the sport later in their athletic journey could increase their injury risk due to trying to “catch up” to their peers that have been in the sport longer (excessive training hours and reps). This is not to say that if an athlete has chosen a sport they love and they want to focus on it, they shouldn’t. Provided that the athlete is choosing for themselves and they still have the ability to sample sports at a recreational level, having one sport that they love can be beneficial to their level of competition if they are not overloaded (ex. baseball practice and games for summer, fall, and spring ball, batting practice, extra throwing practice, etc.). 

Early sports specialization and injury rates: Possibly increases injury risk 

Early sports specialization and performance: Possibly helps later performance levels depending on sport

Early Sport sampling and injury rates: Probably decreases injury risk. 

Early Sport sampling and performance: Possibly helps later performance levels depending on sport

A few articles to check out:

• Sugimoto, Dai, et al. "Youth Sport Specialization: Current Concepts and Clinical Guides." HSS Journal® (2024): 15563316241237526.
• Charbonnet, Bryan, and Achim Conzelmann. "Talent development in childhood: Early specialization or sampling? From an either… or… question to a 2× 2× 3 question cuboid." International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching 19.1 (2024): 459-475.
• Kliethermes, Stephanie A., et al. "Impact of youth sports specialisation on career and task-specific athletic performance: a systematic review following the American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (AMSSM) Collaborative Research Network’s 2019 Youth Early Sport Specialisation Summit." British Journal of Sports Medicine 54.4 (2020): 221-230.
• McLellan, Maddison, Sachin Allahabadi, and Nirav K. Pandya. "Youth sports specialization and its effect on professional, elite, and olympic athlete performance, career longevity, and injury rates: a systematic review." Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine 10.11 (2022): 23259671221129594.
• Carder, Seth L., et al. "The concept of sport sampling versus sport specialization: preventing youth athlete injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis." The American Journal of Sports Medicine 48.11 (2020): 2850-2857.

When it comes to recovery methods, Cold Water Immersion (CWI) and Whole Body Cryotherapy (WBC) have gained popularity among athletes. But do they really help? Let’s break it down:

Key Definitions

• Recovery: The process where an athlete’s body returns to its normal physiological state after exercise.
• Performance Recovery: The process where an athlete regains or enhances their ability to perform well, even if their body hasn’t fully returned to its baseline state.
• Perceived Recovery: An athlete’s personal feeling of how well they’ve recovered after exercise.

Does CWI or WBC help with recovery?

Probably Hinders. There’s little evidence to support the idea that CWI or WBC significantly improves recovery, at least as we’ve defined it here. The body’s return to its normal state doesn’t seem to be dramatically faster with these methods. Probably hindering long-term strength or muscle growth.

Does CWI or WBC help with performance recovery?

Possibly Helps, but the benefits are short-term. You might experience performance improvements for 24-48 hours after using CWI, but be cautious. While it can help with short-term performance recovery, it might also increase fatigue or reduce the body’s ability to adapt positively to training over time. This is particularly important if your goal is long-term strength or muscle growth.

Does CWI or WBC help with perceived recovery?

Probably Helps. Many athletes report feeling better and more recovered after using CWI or WBC, even if the actual physiological benefits are limited. This boost in perceived recovery could help with mental readiness for the next game or session.

Effects of CWI or WBC on adaptations in strength, hypertrophy, or endurance?

• Strength and hypertrophy: Probably Hinders. Research shows that using CWI or WBC after strength training might interfere with muscle growth and strength development over time.
• Endurance: Doesn’t Hinder. CWI or WBC doesn’t seem to help or hurt endurance adaptations, so its impact here is minimal.

When should athletes use CWI or WBC?

The best time to use CWI or WBC is when you need peak performance over consecutive days, such as during tournaments or intense training blocks. It may also help during periods of intense training when recovery time is short. But if you’re focusing on long-term strength or muscle gains, use these recovery methods sparingly.

A few research articles to check out

Ihsan, M., Markworth, J. F., & Peake, J. M. (2021). Adaptations to post-exercise cold water immersion: Friend, foe, or futile? Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 3, Article 714148. 

Fyfe, J. J., Broatch, J. R., Trewin, A. J., Hanson, E. D., Argus, C. K., Garnham, A. P., Halson, S. L., Polman, R. C., Bishop, D. J., & Petersen, A. C. (2019). Cold water immersion attenuates anabolic signaling and skeletal muscle fiber hypertrophy, but not strength gain, following whole-body resistance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 127(5), 1403-1418.

Grgic, J. (2022). Effects of post-exercise cold-water immersion on resistance training-induced gains in muscular strength: A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Journal of Sport Science, 22(1), 1-20.

Mandorino, M., & Lacome, M. (2022). Analysis of recovery methods’ efficacy applied up to 72 hours postmatch in professional football: A systematic review with graded recommendations. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 17(9), 1241-1251. 

Brownstein, C.G., Fornasiero, A., Haile, L., Heisz, J., & Power, K.E. (2021). The neurophysiological mechanisms of fatigue during low-intensity, prolonged exercise: Insights from peripheral and central measures of neuromuscular function. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 121(8), 2337–2347. 

Dupuy, O., Douzi, W., Theurot, D., Bosquet, L., & Dugué, B. (2020). An evidence-based approach for choosing post-exercise recovery techniques to reduce markers of muscle damage, soreness, fatigue, and inflammation: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Sports Medicine, 50(8), 1511–1542.

Even mild dehydration (a loss of 2% of body weight) can impair cognitive abilities such as memory, attention, and reaction time, impair muscular performance, and lead to increased levels of muscle damage after exercise.

When the body is dehydrated, the heart has to work harder to pump blood throughout the body, which can cause fatigue and reduce overall performance. Additionally, dehydration can lead to cramping, as the muscles are not receiving enough fluids and electrolytes to function properly.

When an athlete becomes dehydrated, their body is less able to regulate its internal temperature, which can lead to overheating and other heat-related illnesses.

Dehydration can also affect muscle protein synthesis, which is essential for building and repairing muscle tissue.

Resources

• Casa DJ et al. "National Athletic Trainers' Association Position Statement: Fluid Replacement for Athletes." Journal of Athletic Training. 2000;35(2):212-224.
•  Cheuvront SN et al. "Physiologic basis for understanding quantitative dehydration assessment." American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2013;97(3):455-462.
• Armstrong LE. (2012). "Assessing hydration status: the elusive gold standard." Journal of the American College of Nutrition; 31(2): 103-112.
• Cheuvront SN et al. (2010). "Hydration assessment of athletes." Sports Medicine; 40(1): 23-41.
• Ganio MS et al. (2011). "Mild dehydration impairs cognitive performance and mood of men." British Journal of Nutrition; 106(10): 1535-1543.
• Sawka MN et al. (2007). "American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Exercise and fluid replacement." Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise; 39(2): 377-390.
• Casa DJ et al. Exertional heat illness during training and competition. J Athl Train. 2015;50(3):986-997.
• Judelson DA et al. Effect of hydration state on resistance exercise-induced endocrine markers of anabolism, catabolism, and metabolism. J Appl Physiol. 2008;105(3):816-824.
• Shirreffs SM. Markers of hydration status. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003;57 Suppl 2:S6-S9.
• Armstrong LE et al. Mild dehydration affects mood in healthy young women. J Nutr. 2012;142(2):382-388.
• Sawka MN et al. American College of Sports Medicine position stand: exercise and fluid replacement. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(2):377-390.

1. Maximize Power Output: VBT can be used to determine an athlete's optimal load for power output by adjusting the load to ensure the velocity prescribed is being obtained.

2. Improve Rate of Force Development: VBT can also be used to improve an athlete's rate of force development (RFD), which is important for explosive movements such as sprinting and jumping.

3. Enhance Strength: VBT can also be used to enhance an athlete's strength. A study published in the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research found that using VBT resulted in greater improvements in 1RM strength compared to traditional methods of load prescription.

4. Prevent Overtraining / Injury : VBT can also be used to prevent overtraining by monitoring an athlete's velocity loss, a decrease in bar speed over time during a set. 

5. Individualize Training: Finally, VBT can be used to individualize an athlete's training program by determining their unique velocity profile, which is the relationship between bar speed and load.

6. Tracking progress: VBT provides real-time feedback on an athlete's performance, allowing coaches to track progress over time and make adjustments as needed as well as motivate athletes. 

Resources

•  Mann, J. B., Ivey, P. A., Sayers, S. P., & Brechue, W. F. (2015). Velocity-based training in football. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research,29(11), 3443-3451.
• Suchomel, T. J., Nimphius, S., & Stone, M. H. (2016). The importance of muscular strength: Training considerations. Sports Medicine, 46(10), 1419-1449.
• Weakley, J. J., Till, K., Read, D. B., & Roe, G. A. (2017). The effects of traditional and daily undulating periodized resistance training programs on muscle strength and power in trained older men. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 31(11), 3119-3130.
• Banyard, H. G., Nosaka, K., Haff, G. G., & Tsunoda, K. (2017). Validity of various methods for determining velocity, force, and power in the back squat. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 12(9), 1170-1176.
•  Gonzalez-Badillo, J.J., Rodriguez-Rosell, D., Sanchez-Medina L., et al. (2014). Short-term recovery following resistance exercise leading or not to failure in women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(11), 3005-3013.

Why youth strength training?

o  Better performance

o  Prevent Injuries

o  Better movement patterns

o  Increase strength

o  Stronger bones

This is by no means a complete list of the benefits of strength training for youth athletes.  It does give you a good idea of some of the major reasons athletes of all ages should be strength training. 

Resources

• https://www.nsca.com/Education/Articles/Why-Youth-Strength-and-Conditioning-Matters/
• M. Peitz, M. Behringer, U. Granacher. “A systematic review on the effects of resistance and plyometric training on physical fitness in youth- What do comparative studies tell us?” PLoS ONE. 10 October 2018. 
• A.D. Faigenbaum. “STRENGTH TRAINING FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS.” Clinics in Sports Medicine, volume 19 Issue 4. 1 October 2000, 593-619.
• J.M. Vaughn, L. Micheli. “Strength Training Recommendations for the Young Athlete.” Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America, volume 19, Issue 2. May 2008, 235-245.
• H. Chaabene, M. Lesinski, D.G. Behm, U. Granache. “Performance- and health-related benefits of youth resistance training.” Sports Orthopaedics and Traumatology, 36. 8 May 2020, 231 – 240.